Stewardship:
Conserving
Grassland Birds
|
Stewardship: |
||||
|
|
|
|
|
|
Prepared by Andrea L.Jones and Peter D. Vickery, Grassland Conservation Program, Center for Biological Conservation, Massachusetts Audubon Society, Lincoln, MA, in collaboration with Silvio O. Conte National Fish and Wildlife Refuge and the USFWS North American Waterfowl Management Program. Additional financial support provided by the:
Upland meadow/pasture- Pastures are areas maintained in grass for livestock grazing; meadows are areas grown for hay production. Meadows may occur naturally in tidal marshes and inland flooded river valleys or, more frequently, at upland sites, through clearing of vegetation and planting of grasses. Meadows will revert to old field and eventually forest if they are not mowed, grazed, or burned. Grasses are usually similar in managed meadows and pastures, but herbs are often different in pastures because of selective grazing
Wet meadow- Meadows located in moist low-lying areas, most often dominated by large colonies of reed canary grass. They are often created by collapsed beaver dams and exposed old pond bottoms. Salt-marsh meadows are subject to daily coastal tides.
Sandplain grassland- Dry grasslands that have resisted succession due to fire, wind, grazing, mowing, and salt spray. They are characterized by thin, acidic, nutrient-poor soils over deep sand deposits. Sandplains occur primarily coastally and on the islands off of Massachusetts, as well as inland where sands have been deposited by glaciers and river sedimentation.
Restoration- Involves taking a degraded grassland and re-establishing habitat for native plants and animals. Restoration usually involves the planting of native grasses and forbs, and may include shrub removal and prescribed burning.
Native plant- A plant that has grown in the region since the last glaciation and occurred before European settlement.
Exotic- A species not native to the place where it is found.
Forb- A flowering plant, excluding grasses, sedges, and rushes, that does not have a woody stem and dies back to the ground at the end of the growing season.
Warm-season grass- Native prairie grass that puts on the most growth during summer when cool-season grasses are dormant.
Cool-season grass- Introduced grass for crop and pasture land that grows in spring and fall and is dormant during hot summer months.
Mesic soil- Sandy to clay loams, contain moisture-retentive organic matter, well drained (no standing water).
Agricultural lands have provided home and sanctuary to grassland birds for many hundreds of years in the Northeast. In hayfields and pastures, birds such as bobolinks and eastern meadowlarks have raised their young, hunted for food, and returned each spring to continue this cycle. Many species of wildlife, including birds, mammals, and butterflies, adapted and expanded their populations throughout the Northeast in the 1800s as land was cleared for farming.
Most grassland birds use hayfields, meadows, and pastures for breeding while many other birds nest nearby and use crop fields and open areas for hunting and foraging. Some species nest along weedy borders and shrubby edges of fields and rely on open fields for feeding on seeds and insects. Songbirds, such as boblinks and eastern meadowlarks, build nests on the ground, raise young, and forage exclusively within hayfields, meadows, and pastures during the summer. In the fall, fields provide food for migrating sparrows, larks, and warblers. Some songbirds that breed farther north, such as snow buntings, visit farm fields in search of food during the winter months. Many hawks and owls, such as American kestrels, northern harriers, and short-eared owls, rely on grasslands of all sizes for hunting small mammals. Waterfowl are shorebirds frequently feed in flooded portions of crop fields during migration.
Many birds that live in or near agricultural areas rely on farm fields, particularly for feeding. In many cases, they hunt the pests that can destroy or invade crops. For instance, American kestrels (small falcons) that are seen hovering over fields are searching for insects as well as small mammals, Red-tailed hawks, large common birds of prey seen perching atop trees in open country, hunt mostly for rodents as well as some birds and insects. Songbirds, such as swallows, forage aerially for insects: large flocks are often seen following a plow as it churns up insects. Grassland birds also rely on insects such as caterpillars and grasshoppers found in the grasses to feed their young. They have all adapted to, and are an important component of, a grassland ecosystem.
In the past 100 years, there has been a decline in the quantity and quality of grassland for wildlife. In the Northeast, hayfields that were traditionally harvested late in the season provided ideal breeding habitat for birds. Today, most hayfields are mowed earlier and more frequently in the growing season or are planted in large single crop fields. Changes in agricultural technology, movement of farms to the west, and an increase in human population in the Northeast have resulted in a decline of habitat for grassland birds. Because farmland has become fragmented, most remaining grasslands have become smaller and isolated and are no longer suitable for many species required large tracts of grassland.
Historically, the large grasslands in the Northeast provided habitat for many grassland birds, particularly the grasshopper sparrow, savannah sparrow, vesper sparrow, upland sandpiper, eastern meadowlark, and bobolink. However, as grassland habitat has become fragmented into small fields and pastures, only those birds that are adapted to living in smaller fields will persist at these sites. Bobolinks, eastern meadowlarks, and savannah sparrows are reliant on the remaining hayfields and pastures for their survival.
Mowing is central to many farming operations as well as the conservation of grassland habitats. The following suggestions can be used on hayfields to improve wildlife habitat while minimizing a reduction in the quantity of hay harvest.
Options
Keep alert for grassland birds nesting in fields. Mowing around areas where birds are frequently seen or leaving small patches unmowed can easily protect many nesting birds. Small unmowed patches will provided cover and feeding areas for birds for the remainder of the summer.
Rotating sizable fields (greater than ten acres) that are mowed early with those that are mowed late (hay used for bedding straw, etc.) each season can provide some fields for nesting birds while minimizing an impact on high-quality hay.
If possible, defer mowing until near the end of the grassland bird breeding season (i.e., after July 15) on fields not used for intensive hay production. This includes areas such as fallow fields, edge habitats, marginal farmlands, and weedy areas.
Flushing bars can be used on haying equipment to move birds hiding grass.
Avoiding nighttime mowing will reduce the risks of injuring roosting birds.
Raising mower blades to six inches or more may avoid crushing some nests and young.
Local bird clubs or conservation organizations can help determine where and what birds are nesting in hayfields. Careful observations can determine the approximate nest locations and when birds have successfully raised their young. (See Appendix 4 for a list of local Audubon/conservation societies to contact.)
Burning improves agricultural land by releasing nutrients into the soil. Burning, particularly useful in large grasslands, enhances native grass-species composition and eliminates the buildup of ground litter. Burning removes old grass stems, standing dead vegetation, and ground litter; controls plant diseases; and helps control the spread of exotic plants and woody vegetation. It encourages growth of native warm-season grasses and forbs (if already present in the soil) and improves forage plant quality and quantity. In addition, burning benefits most grassland bird populations within one or two years following a burn.
Options
Burning in early spring (before arrival of birds in mid-May) is most beneficial to vegetation and nesting birds. Although some ground-nesting birds will not nest immediately following a burn, they will increase one or two years after a burn.
With large grasslands (greater than 100 acres), rotate portions burned over several years on a two- to six- year rotation, leaving some patches unburned each year (ideally burn 20 to 40 percent annually) to provide wildlife habitat and create a mosaic of vegetation.
Careful planning is necessary before burning. Most grassland burns occur between mid-March and the end of April, before greening and bird nesting. Timing of a burn must consider relative humidity, wind condition and direction, air temperature, and fuel conditions. Burn designs must incorporate existing firebreaks (roads, lakes, and streams), or fire breaks must be created. Adjacent landowners should be notified prior to burning. There may be state and local regulations governing controlled burns. Contact your local fire department for guidance and permits before burning.
Options
Field edge conservation: Uncultivated shrubby or grassy and weedy edges, particularly along wetlands and streams, protect soils, control erosion, improve water quality, and provide wildlife habitat for a variety of birds, such as eastern towhees and song sparrows, nesting along edge habitats, as well as for foxes and other mammals. These areas are important to birds, butterflies, and mammals for feeding, cover, and/or nesting. The Natural Resource Conservation Service's Wetlands Reserve Program may be able to pay for these areas to be protected.
Brush row removal: Field borders, particularly those dividing fields, that are not needed for wind or erosion control, or to protect wetlands, can be removed to control invasive woody plants. This results in the creation of larger grassland habitats that are attractive to more species of grassland birds. Removal of woody vegetation can be achieved by a variety of means: mechanically, with herbicides, or by burning. Removal should be avoided during the nesting season to minimize wildlife disturbance. Areas where brush has been removed should be monitored for resprouting and regrowth. Repeat applications and spot treatments may be necessary for some resilient woody plants. Herbicides are applied directly to the newly cut shrub stem.
Cover cropping: Planting a cover of grasses, grains, or legumes in unused fields decreases soil erosion, increases organic matter and soil fertility, and provides cover and feeding areas for wildlife throughout the year.
Strip cropping: In large fields, alternating strips of grass or close-growing crops with cultivated crops, particularly on the edge of a field or along a drainage area, provides cover and nesting habitat for birds and other wildlife. Leaving these areas unmowed and ungrazed during the breeding season help prevent runoff and erosion while providing areas for birds to successfully raise their young.
Wetlands protection: Wetlands adjacent to crop fields are especially important for wildlife habitat, and surrounding buffers of natural vegetation aid in the breakdown of pollutants from agricultural runoff. Pollutants in runoff include nutrients in fertilizers and harmful bacteria and viruses in manure. The wider the buffer, the greater the reduction of pollutants. In fields that are in agricultural use, and where cultivation already occurs close to a wetland, a buffer zone of 20 feet will provide some water quality benefits. However, a buffer of 60 feet or more will make a greater contribution to controlling pollutants and should be the minimum wherever possible. For maintaining good wildlife habitat in a wetland, as well as controlling pollutants, a buffer of 300 feet is preferable. Decisions on the buffer will depend on the type of pollution, slope, soil type, vegetation, and value of the wetland as wildlife habitat.
Conservation tillage: Frequent tillage destroys nests and decreases shelter and food for wildlife. In addition, tillage buries roughly 75 percent of crop residues, including waste grains and weed seeds that provide food in the fall for migrating and grassland birds and waterfowl. Conservation tillage is defined as a tillage or planting system that maintains at least 30 percent of the soil covered by plants or plant residue. Decreasing tillage reduces soil erosion, saves fuel and time, conserves soil moisture, and improves wildlife habitat, but is associated with more frequent herbicide use.
Crop rotation: Rotating crops grown in each field helps maintain or improve soil productivity and fertility. This can reduce soil erosion from wind and water, helps control weeds, manages plant pests by breaking the pest cycle, and improves and maintains the condition of the soil. Crops planted in recurring sequence may include cover crops that provide habitat for wildlife.
Planting fields in warm-season grasses, in addition to the more commonly planted cool-season grasses, can benefit both the farmer and wildlife. The differences between the two grass types are described later.
Grazing
Cattle, sheep, and horses have different food preferences; their grazing has effects on the different vegetation structures of pastures. Many grassland birds in the Northeast tolerate and benefit from light grazing because it creates a mosaic of grass heights and structures, removes ground litter, and benefits bunch grasses. Light grazing also allows the development of wildflowers and scattered shrubs. However, intensive grazing leads to a loss of plant diversity and cover for wildlife.
Options
Livestock rotation: Rotating livestock between forage fields planted in warm- and cool-season grasses prevents overgrazing and provides high-quality nutritious grass for a greater portion of the year. Manipulating the intensity, frequency, and duration of grazing in fields preserves upland or wetland vegetation, protects stream banks from erosion, minimizes soil compaction, and benefits nesting grassland birds.
Spring burning: Burning pastures, particularly on poor soil, releases nutrients into the soil and encourages growth of nutritious, palatable grasses for livestock (see previous section for permit requirements)
Creating a mosaic: Leaving some areas ungrazed and unburned each season and allowing grass to grow (8 to 12 inches) creates ideal habitat for growth of wildflowers, butterflies, and breeding areas for grassland birds. Maintaining adequate vegetation cover prevents soil erosion from wind and water
Long term agricultural benefits, including reduced soil erosion, decreased pollution of fresh water, decreased energy costs from fewer tillage operations, and increased soil fertility also provide farmland where grassland birds can thrive
Restoring portions of inactive farmland into grasslands can be beneficial to the land as well as wildlife. Planting an area in grasses prevents soil erosion and runoff and increases the fertility of the soil. It is particularly beneficial in fallow fields or idle croplands that have been depleted of nutrients.
What to plant. Native grasses are recommended when possible to provide habitat for a diversity of wildlife. Grass species should be determined based on the following criteria: amount of rainfall, length of growing season, temperature extremes, and United States Department of Agriculture Plant Hardiness Zones, in addition to soil conditions such as pH, water holding capacity, aspect, fertility, drainage, salinity, and alkalinity. Soil maps, available from local Natural Resource Conservation Service (NRCS) offices, will help determine what types of native grasses are most suitable on your land. (see Appendixes 2 and 3 for a list of grass species and a variety of nurseries that specialize in native grasses)
Prior to planting, provide a firm, weed-free seed bed and uniform soil moisture to ensure that plants will not dry. Follow seeding specifications, such as planting depths, soil types, seeding rates, and fertilizer needs, set by the seed supplier or an agency such as NRCS.
Planting a mixture of grasses provides greater diversity for wildlife habitat. However, be sure grass species are compatible in the rates of establishment, maturity, and growth habits to ensure survival of all species planted and to create a uniform stand.
Where and how much to restore. Restoring areas of grasslands of 100 or more acres is ideal for wildlife habitat but not always practical. If possible, choosing an area to restore that is adjacent to other hayfields or meadows will create the effect of a larger continuous grassland system for wildlife. By restoring a large tract of grassland, or a small area surrounded by other grassland habitats, the amount and diversity of wildlife using the habitat throughout the year increases. Predation of grassland birds usually decreases as the size or amount of edge habitat of a grassland increases. Therefore, minimize edge habitat where possible (circular or square fields are preferable to rectangular fields.)
Restored areas of less than five acres that are not adjacent to other fields or open habitats may benefit wildflowers and butterflies, but such parcels will not likely be used by grassland birds. Bobolinks, having the smallest acreage requirements of any grassland bird, are not found nesting in fields smaller than five acres.
Sustainable agriculture is a widely used method of farming that protects agricultural lands in a way that is beneficial to soil, water and wildlife. Sustainable practices include the following.
Increased crop rotation on fields helps fields "rest" from crops that deplete the soil of nutrients and replaces fields with cover crops such as grains or grasses to prevent erosion and protect soil. This can provide habitat for wildlife.
Decreased use of pesticides protects water sources and associated aquatic wildlife from pollution and sustains greater insect population in fields. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is a program throughout the US that seeks to suppress pest populations to avoid economic losses while tolerating pest levels below economically damaging levels. This system uses pesticides in smaller, localized dosages based on pest population monitoring, crop rotation to alleviate pests, and other methods such as 1) cultivating mechanically, 2) mulching, 3) planting pest-resistant crops, 4) sanitizing fields. The release of beneficial organisms as pest controls is also considered part of IPM. Contact your state Department of Agriculture office for further information (see Appendix 4).
Conservation tillage protects ground insect and soil nutrients, and provides food and cover for wildlife.
In order to protect existing farmland and grassland habitat from development and to provide future habitat for farmland wildlife, there are several options to protect land, including the following.
The Agricultural Preservation Restriction Program (APR) has been instituted in most New England states to protect agricultural land from development. In this voluntary program, farmers apply to the state to sell development rights to their land. Farmers are compensated by up to 90 percent of the value of the land. In return, the state acquires the deed restrictions on the land, stating that the land must remain in some form of agriculture. This allows other farmers to buy farmland at affordable prices but restricts any purchases of the land for development. Contact your state Department of Agriculture office for information on this program (see Appendix 4).
The Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) was instituted in 1985 by the US Department of Agriculture (USDA). The purpose of this program has been to reduce crop surplus, protect soil from erosion, and increase wildlife habitat. As a result, habitat has been created and enhanced for waterfowl and many grassland birds. Under this plan, landowners were paid to plant perennial vegetation (grasses, legumes, or trees) on eroding or highly erodible fields. This land could not be grazed or harvested for a ten year period. Over 34 million acres have been put into CRP since 1985. Although this program is not widely used in the Northeast, the establishment of a similar program could provide incentives to conserve agricultural habitat in the region in the future.
The Wetlands Reserve Program (WRP), started in 1991, is a voluntary USDA program to help farmers and other landowners take agricultural lands out of production and restore them as wetlands. Eligible lands include wetlands farmed under natural conditions, farmed wetlands, formerly converted cropland, commenced converted wetlands, farmed wetlands pasture, stream corridors, or land substantially altered by flooding. Technical and financial assistance is provided by the NRCS. Landowners could receive up to 100 percent of the value of the property and up to 100 percent of the restoration costs. In some cases, farmers may sell a permanent or long term easement to the federal government. In other cases, wetlands may be restored through a simple agreement. Under this program, conservation easements are purchased from landowners to restore, enhance, or create wetland areas. Ownership, control of access, and some compatible uses remain with the landowner. Information about restoring wetland is available from NRCS at the local Soil and Water Conservation District offices.
The Partners for Wildlife Program (PFW) was created by the US Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) in 1992 to assist private landowners, including farmers, corporations, and private organizations, with habitat restoration projects. Under this program, the USFWS helps landowners with habitat restoration projects such as reseeding areas in native vegetation and restoring wetlands. For more information, contact USFWS.
The Wildlife Habitat Improvement Program (WHIP) is a new program administered by the NRCS in each state through the 1996 Farm Bill. The purpose of WHIPis to help landowners develop habitat for upland wildlife, wetland wildlife, threatened or endangered species, and fish. In the priority to improve wildlife habitat through practices such as brush control, mowing, burning, native revegetation planting, and fencing. The NRCS will provide money through a 75 percent cost share. For more information on the WHIP program in your state, contact your local district conservationist at your state NRCS office (see Appendix 4).
The American Farmland Trust (AFT) is a national organization working to protect productive farmland while encouraging farmers to improve the stewardship of their land by suggesting conservative options available to farm owners. The AFT helps officials at the local, state, and national levels to create public policies that protect farmland and offer voluntary incentives for improving land stewardship. One such method is a conservation easement, a restriction that landowners can voluntarily place on their property to protect natural resources such as topsoil, water quality, and wildlife habitat, or to protect the land for farming into the future. An agricultural conservation easement is a voluntary, legally recorded agreement between the landowner and the AFT (or another qualified conservation organization) that prohibits or limits development that would damage the agricultural value or the productivity of the farmland. Under this easement, a landowner may be eligible for tax benefits. For more information about agricultural conservation easements or other programs contact the American Farmland Trust office.
| Grasshopper Sparrow | Vesper Sparrow | Upland Sandpiper | Bobolink | Eastern Meadowlark | Savannah Sparrow | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Breeding Facts | ||||||
| Breeding Dates | May 20-July 30 | April 15-August 30 | May 30- July 30 | May 25-July 15 | April 21-August 15 | May 21-July 31 |
| Wintering Status | Usually migrates to southern US and islands | Occasionally seen in winter; most migrate south to southern US and Mexico | Migrates to South America | Migrates to South America | Southern Massachusetts; in salt marshes/moorlands, and south through eastern US | Some winter along Massachusetts coast; most winter along southern states to Mexico |
| Egg dates | May 25-July 15 | April 15-August 11 | May 30-June 30 | June 1-8 | April 21-July 28 | May 21-June 29 |
| # of broods/year | 2 | 1-2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1-2 |
| Type of nest | Cup nest in depression on ground under clump of overhanging litter and grasses or at base of shrub;mostly domed | Cup nest in depression on ground concealed by sparse vegetation at base of forb or thin clump of grass | Shallow depression on dry habitat, concealed with grass | Cup nest in depression on ground at base of dense cover of forbs in mat of dead grass less than 4 inches tall | Well-concealed domed cup nest, often with a runway, in depression on ground in dense cover with vegetation 10-20 inches tall | Cup nest in shallow depression on ground, formed in grass clumps or at base of low woody shrub |
| Territory size (acres) | 2-4 | 1-4 | 20-30 | 1-6 | 6-8 | 1-2 |
| Habitat Requirements | ||||||
| Grassland type | Upland meadow/pasture, old field, sandplain grassland (e.g., cultivated grasslands, old fields, coastal heathlands, blue berry barrens, reclaimed grasslands, capped landfills) | Upland meadow/pasture, old field, sandplain grassland (e.g., crop fields, weedy edges of potato fields, pastures, pine barrens, blueberry barrens, gravel pits, forest clearings) | Upland meadow/pasture, old field, sandplain grassland (e.g., pastures, old hayfields, dry meadows, airfields, blueberry barrens, extensive mixed agricultural areas) | Upland meadow/pasture, wet meadow, old field (e.g., old hayfields, reclaimed grasslands, capped landfills) | Upland meadow/pasture, old field, (e.g., hayfields, croplands, reclaimed grasslands and capped landfills, airports, shrubby overgrown fields) | Upland meadow/pasture, old field, sandplain grassland, salt meadow (e.g., cultivated fields, hayfields, pastures, successional fields, blueberry barrens, coastal grasslands, airports) |
| Minimum grassland size (acres) | 30 | 30 | 150 | 5-10 | 15-20 | 20-40 |
| Vegetation structure | Short bunch grasses (ht.: 4-12 inches) with minimal litter and grass cover, patches of bare ground, scattered tall forbs (ht.: 8-25 inches) and short shrubs (ht.: 1-8 inches) for song perches; favors well-drained upland sites; absent from fields with over 35% shrubs | Open, sparse, short grass (ht.: 1-8 inches) on dry upland sites with low grass and forb density, and scattered shrubs or small trees (ht.: over 12 inches) for singing perches | Mixture of short and tall (ht.: 24 inches) grass interspersed with patches of bare ground and some tall sining perches; avoids fields with uniform grass and legumes and dense litter layer | Mixed grass (ht.: 8-12 inches) old hayfields over 8 years old with relatively sparse ground cover, usually in lowlands with moist soil; prefer mosaic of grasses, sedges, and scattered broad-leaved forbs with over 25% shrub cover; use shrubs, posts, small trees as song perches | Sparse to dense grass-dominated cover (ht.: 10-20 inches), preferably in low-lying areas with damp soils, thick layer of dead grass, scattered shrubs (ht.: 1-8 inches), and tall forbs (ht.: 1-15 inches) for song perches; prefer mixed grass fields to alfalfa | Dense ground vegetation with mixture of short and tall grasses (ht.: 1-25 inches) in moist habitat with thick layer of dead grass, scattered saplings, shrubs, and forbs (ht.: 1-10 inches); use fields of all ages from alfalfa to grass |
| Diet | Adult: Mostly grasshoppers, and also caterpillars, ants, bugs, and some grass and weed seed Nestling: Caterpillars | Adult: Primarily beetles, grasshoppers, caterpillars, bugs and ants, and also grass and weed seed | Adult: Mostly insects (grasshoppers, crickets, weevils, etc.) and occasionally weed, grass, and grain seed | Adult: Insects (caterpillars, grasshoppers, beetles, ants, etc.) grain and weed seeds Nestling: Caterpillars, grasshoppers | Adult: Mostly insects (crickets, grasshoppers) and some seeds Nestling: Caterpillars, cutworms | Adults: Mostly insects (beetles, caterpillars, grasshoppers, ants, etc.) and some grass seeds, and fruit |
| Management Suggestions | ||||||
| Mowing/Haying | Mow fields annually outside breeding season (May 1- August 5) | Favors frequently mowed areas for foraging; leave nesting areas unmowed during breeding season (April 15-August 30) | Provide mixture of short grass (feeding) and tall grass (breeding); mow nesting areas after mid-July, every 1-3 years (provide 6-8 inches grass in nesting area for spring arrival | Mow hayfields every 1-3 years after mid-July or in August to prevent nest destruction; remove hay to prevent thatch buildup | Mow every 1-3 years in August to avoid nest destruction | Mow yearly after mid-August to maintain short grasses |
| Grazing | Mow fields annually outside breeding season (May 1- August 5) | Favors frequently mowed areas for foraging; leave nesting areas unmowed during breeding season (April 15- August 30) | Provide mixture of short grass (feeding) and tall grass (breeding); mow nesting areas after mid-July, every 1-3 years (provide 6-8 inches grass in nesting area for spring arrival) | Mow hayfields every 1-3 years after mid-July or in August to prevent nest destruction; remove hay to prevent thatch build-up | Mow every 1-3 years in August to avoid nest destruction | Mow yearly after mid-August to maintain short grasses |
| Grazing | Light to moderate grazing to maintain short and sparse bunched vegetation | Moderate grazing to maintain 20-40% of vegetation at 10 inches tall | Moderate grazing (grass ht.: 8-12 inches) with some scattering of forbs; restrict cattle May 1-July 15 in nesting areas | Light grazing (grass ht.: 8-12 inches); will not use heavily grazed pastures | Fields ungrazed for 2 years or lightly grazed pasture (grass ht.: less than 5 inches) with scattered forbs; rotate grazing to maintain variety of grass height and density during breeding season | Light grazing with approximately 40% vegetation cover (grass ht.: 10 inches) |
| Prescribed burning | Nests is burned and unburned areas, increases for 4-5 years following burn until litter cover increases; burn every 5-7 years but leave but sufficient unburned breeding habitats each year | Responds positively to short sparse vegetation created by burning, burn early spring or late fall; for grasslands greater than 60 acres, burn 20-30% yearly; for smaller grasslands, do not burn greater than 50-60% of area in given year | Nests in recently burned fields (prefers second year after burn) with short new growth and no litter; burn only a portion of large areas I a year to provide unburned habitat in spring; burn every 5-10 years after September 1 or before May 1 | Nests in a field 1 growing season following burn; avoids recently burned areas that remove all litter; burn patches every 2-5 years but not all of an area in one year | Nests 2-4 years following burn as shrubs regrow; avoids areas with thick litter layer | Increases 2-4 years following burn and then decreases because of greater litter cover, short grasses, and not enough short shrubs |
| Restoration | Plant native warm-season bunch grasses rather than sod-forming grasses on well-drained or sandy soils with mixture of scattered forbs and shrubs | Plant native warm-season grasses in well-drained fields with lighter soils (sand and gravel), avoid heavy clays; provide undisturbed sparse vegetation and song perches along borders of crop fields | Plant native warm-season bunch grasses in large fields or combine existing fallow fields to provide mosaic of habitat types for feeding and breeding areas | Plant late-maturing hay species (warm-season native grasses) rather than legumes; can restore habitat on erodible, marginal farmland; use no-tillage method for reseeding | Restrict surface tillage for weed control or seeding during breeding season; plant mixed-grass hayfields (warm-season native grasses) in moist areas | Plant fields with mixture of tall and short grasses and forbs |
| Comments | In crop fields, nests confined to field edges; will forage in nearby brush and woods | Often nests near airfields but cause little threat to aircraft because of low and direct flights; nests territories often grouped and feeding areas shared | Attempts re-nesting if nest destroyed before June 20; high site fidelity when breeding is successful; greatest nest success far from forest edge | Attempts renesting if nest destroyed early in season; sensitive to human disturbance while breeding |
| COMMON NAME/SCIENTIFIC NAME | WARM/COOL SEASON | HEIGHT (feet) | CHARACTERISTICS | HABITAT | SOIL TYPE | PLANTING INSTRUCTIONS | AGRICULTURAL USES | NURSERIES (See Appendix 3) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Little bluestem Schizachyrium scoparius (Andropogon scoparius) | Warm | 1.5-4 | Bunch grass in dry or moist soils; drought tolerant; flowers July-October | Sandy fields and disturbed areas in sun; common invader of old fields in the Northeast | Dry to moist; light, textured soil; average fertility; does not grow well in rich soils | Seed late summer to early fall or early spring | Stabilization, range reseeding, landscaping, forage; does not grow well with close mowing/grazing | 1,2,4,5,6 |
| Poverty Grass Danthonia spicata | Warm | .5-2 | Bunch grass; flowers June-July | Abundant in sandy disturbed sites; typical grass along East coast | Dry, poor soil | Plant in spring or mid to late summer | ||
| Pennsylvania sedge Carex pennsylvanica | Cool | .5-1 | Flowers in early spring to July | Sun to part shade; common ground layer in dry oak woods | Dry to moist, mesic, well-drained soil; acidic; average fertility | Plant or seed in fall or early spring | Pasture, forage, hay | 1,2,5,6 |
| Big bluestem Andropogon gerardii | Warm | 3-8 | Bunch grass; very drought tolerant, adaptable; flowers August-October | Dry open sunny places along roadsides and shores, moist to dry fields | Poor to well drained soil; coarse sand to clay | Seed in spring or summer when soil is warm; blooms first year if sown early | Poor forage grass; good cover crop (sometimes becomes too dense for some birds) | 1,2,4,5,6 |
| Broom-sedge Andropogon virginicus | Warm | 1-4 | Bunch grass; slow spreading, tolerates seasonal saturation; flowers August-October | Dry sunny fields, pastures (invades overgrazed ranges); valuable winter seed source for birds | Tolerates dry to moist soil, prefers fertile well-drained soil | Plant in spring when soil is warm | 1, 4 | |
| Switchgrass Panicum virgatum | Warm | 2-7 | Bunch grass; slow spreading, drought tolerant, prolific; flowers late July-September | Sunny areas in dry soils along sandy roadsides and upland edges of salt marshes; valuable fall and winter food and cover for birds | Tolerates many soils but grows best on fertile and moist sandy soil; tolerates moderate salinity | Seed or plant late summer/early fall or early spring; blooms first year if planted early; takes 1-2 years to become totally established | Pasture, forage, erosion control | 1,2,4,5,6,9 |
| Red fescue Festuca rubra | Cool | 1-3 | Moderately drought resistant | Sunny fields and meadows | Moist to dry rocky soil; tolerates salt, low fertility | Used as lawn grass in shady areas | 1 | |
| Kentucky bluegrass Poa pratensis | Cool | 1-2 | Sod-forming; shallow root system, cannot withstand drought; flowers mainly in the spring | Very common in fields, roadsides, lawns, shores, native to North America; good seed for birds | Prefers limestone (neutral) porous soils; needs reliable moisture | (See nursery) | Widely used lawn, pasture, and turf grass; grows best after grazing | 1 |
| Indian grass Sorghastrum nutans | Warm | 2-9 | Drought tolerant; flowers August-September | Dry sunny fields; in East found sporadically along dry roadsides and fields | Mesic and dry to moist soil; poor to average fertility | (See nursery) | Pasture and range; nutritious for livestock | 1,2,4,5,6,9 |
| Side-oats gramma (Tall gramma grass) Bouteloua curtipedula | Warm | 1-3.5 | Bunch grass; drought tolerant; flowers July-September | Sunny areas in dry woods and prairies | Dry to moist soils; grows best in well-drained rocky-shallow areas | Bloom first year planted | Pasture, range, erosion control | 1,5,6 |
| NAME | ADDRESS |
| 1. Ernst Conservation Seeds | 9006 Mercer Pike Meadville, PA 16335 |
| 2. Native Gardens | 5737 Fisher Lane Greenback, TN 37742 |
| 3. Native Seeds, Inc. * | 14590 Tridelphia Mill Road Dayton, MD 21036 |
| 4. Pinelands Nursery | 323 Island Road Columbus, NJ 08022 |
| 5. Prairie Ridge Nursery | 9738 Overland Road Mt. Horeb, WI 53572-2832 |
| 6. Prairie Nursery | P.O. Box 306 Westfield, WI 53964 |
| 7. Putney Nursery, Inc.* | Route 5 Putney, VT 05346 |
| 8. Thompson & Morgan, Inc.* | P.O. Box 1308 Jackson, NJ 08527-0308 |
| 9. Wild Earth Native Plant Nursery | 49 Mead Avenue Freehold, NJ 07728 |
| * specializes in native wildflowers only |
| NATURAL RESOURCES CONSERVATION SERVICE | DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE | AUDUBON/CONSERVATION SOCIETIES | |
| MASSACHUSETTS | |||
| UMASS Cooperative Ext. System Dept. of Forestry and Wildlife Management Holdsworth Natural Resources Ctr. Amherst, MA 01003 Phone:(413) 545-2665 | Massachusetts State Office 451 West Street Amherst, MA 01002-2995 Phone:(413) 253-4350 | Massachusetts Department of Agriculture State Office Building 100 Cambridge Street Boston, MA 02202 Phone:(617) 727-3000 Information Specialist: (617) 727-3018 ext 170 | Massachusetts Audubon Society 208 South Great Road Lincoln, MA 01773 Phone:(617) 259-9500 |
| CONNECTICUT | |||
| UCONN Cooperative Ext. System College of Agriculture and Natural Resources Box U-66, 1376 Storrs Road Storrs, CT 06269-4066 Phone:(203) 486-2917 | Connecticut State Office 16 Professional Park Road Storrs, CT 06268-1299 Phone:(860) 487-4011 | Connecticut Department of Agriculture State Office Building 165 Capitol Avenue Hartford, CT 06106 Phone:(860) 566-4667 E-mail: ctdeptag@po.state.ct.us Information Specialist: (860) 566-6094 | Connecticut Audubon Society, Inc. 118 Oak Street Hartford, CT 06106 Phone:(860) 527-8737 |
| RHODE ISLAND | |||
| URI Cooperative Ext. Services Kingston, RI 02881 Phone:(401) 874-2599 | Rhode Island State Office 60 Quaker Lane, 2nd Floor Warwick, RI 02886 Phone:(401) 828-1300 | Rhode Island Division of Agriculture and Marketing DEM - 83 Park Street, 6th Floor Providence, RI 02903-1037 Phone:(401) 277-2781 Information Specialist: (401) 277-2781 ext 4501 | Audubon Society of Rhode Island 12 Sanderson Road Smithfield, RI 02917-2600 Phone:(401) 949-5454 |
| VERMONT | |||
| UVM Extension System 601 Main Street Burlington, VT 05401-3439 Phone:(802) 656-2990 | Vermont State Office 69 Union Street Winooski, VT 05404 Phone:(802) 951-6795 | Vermont Department of Agriculture 116 State Street, Drawer 20 Montpelier, VT 05620-2901 Phone:(802) 828-2430 Information Specialist: (802) 828-2361 | Vermont Audubon Council Phone:(802) 388-4082 Vermont Institute of Natural Science RR2, Box 532 Woodstock, VT 05091 Phone:(802) 457-2779 |
| NEW HAMPSHIRE | |||
| UNH Cooperative Extension 59 College Road, Taylor Hall Durham, NH 03824-2618 Phone:(603) 862-1520 | New Hampshire State Office 2 Madbury Road Durham, NH 03824-1499 Phone:(603) 868-7581 | New Hampshire Department of Agriculture Caller Box 2042 Concord, NH 03302-2042 Phone:(603) 271-3551 Information Specialist: (603) 271-3551 | Audubon Society of New Hampshire 3 Silk Farm Road Concord, NH 0331-8299 Phone:(603) 224-9909 |
| MAINE | |||
| UMAINE Cooperative Extension 5741 Libby Hall Orono, ME 04469-5741 Phone:(207) 581-3240 | Maine State Office 5 Godfrey Drive Orono, ME 04473 Phone:(207) 866-7241 | Maine Department of Agriculture Augusta Mental Health Institute 28 State House Station Augusta, ME 04333-0001 Phone:(207) 287-3871 Email: agcommsr@state.me.us Information Specialist: (207) 287-3871 752 | Maine Audubon Society Gilsland Farm 118 U.S. Rt. 1 P.O. Box 6009 Falmouth, ME 04105 Phone:(207) 781-2330 |
| Greater Worcester Land Trust (508)795-3838 101 Water Street, Worcester, MA 01604 E-mail: mail@gwlt.org URL:http://www.gwlt.org | Suggestions, Questions, & Site Survey |