Citizen's
Greenways Guide
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Citizen's |
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Greenways are comprised of both public and private lands, and can include trails riverways, habitat and resource conservation areas, unique natural features, scenic roads, historic structures, vacant urban lands, forest land, and farm fields-basically any resource that is significant to a community. Some greenways focus on resource conservation through stream corridor protection. Others connect existing parks and open lands to increase recreational opportunities. Still others aim to promote revitalization of downtown sites by providing an inviting green corridor or pathway, making the area more appealing to businesses and residents alike. A greenway can be as simple as a foot trail connecting two neighborhood parks, or as complex as a multi-use urban recreational path that extends into the countryside through an intricate network of trails, old railroad grades, and local roads. While greenways may vary in size, ownership, and purpose, they share a common theme: to protect the resources that help create the unique character of a place and to integrate these special features into the surrounding landscape. Winding their way through our cities, suburbs, and rural areas, these diverse corridors of green highlight tour natural and cultural heritage, provide recreational opportunities close to home, and can help shape the future growth of our communities.
Whether you call them trails, linear parks, riverways, or wildlife corridors, it is the approach to creating and protecting these areas that defines them as greenways. Key to understanding the difference between greenways and other efforts at land protection is an appreciation of the fragmented nature of our landscape. In many communities, parks, wetlands, playgrounds and other open spaces are scattered and, to many people, accessible only by car. The greenway concept is a response to this fragmentation and focuses on reconnecting our recreational and ecological resources. In simplest terms, while paths might wind around within a particular park, a greenway links this park together with other resources to create a coordinated and accessible system of open spaces and natural areas. These networks are not predetermined and superimposed on the landscape, but instead grow out of the natural and cultural features that already exist. The nature of a specific greenway project is determined when this concept of linking resources and protecting corridors of land and water is applied to a particular area, and the physical factors, political climate, available resources, and priorities and needs of those involved are considered. This process not only results in a logical, cost-effective, and environmentally sound development pattern, but it also brings together a variety of individuals as partners.
Greenways are often initiated and almost always implemented on the local or regional level. This grassroots approach results in greenway plans and projects that reflect local interests and needs, and thus are more likely to gain community support and acceptance. Local players have a detailed understanding of the physical and political landscape of their communities, and are the most logical ones to work with neighboring landowners and fellow community members. They are attuned to the strategies most likely to succeed and will be the most convincing advocates. And while the focus of individual greenway supporters may be town-specific, a strong local contingent can lay the groundwork for inter-town cooperation for protecting these resources that know no political boundaries. Citizens, town planners and other municipal officials, and local advocacy groups play a major role in determining the nature of particular greenway projects. Because of the variety of resources that can be incorporated into a greenway network, and the infinite possibilities for linking them together, specific greenway routes are often defined by the ideals of the project participants. While a major goal of the greenway approach is to link together landscape features, the creation of a greenway is also an extremely effective means of connecting people with the land, and with one another.
Resource Areas: The Building Blocks of Greenways
Many different types of land and water resources can be incorporated into a greenway system. They fall into four broad categories: resource conservation areas, parks and open spaces, cultural and historic resources, and the corridors of land and water which connect these other elements together.
Resource Conservation Areas
Resource conservation areas, sometimes called preserves, encompass a variety of natural environments, including floodplains, wetlands, stream and river banks, coastal dunes, forests, and other environmentally sensitive areas. Protecting these resources and keeping them in their natural state helps maintain the integrity of many ecological systems and ensures that they continue to function properly. While some of these areas are ideal for hiking, nature study, and outdoor appreciation, many are too fragile or simply not suitable for recreational activities. As a result, we may not have access to every inch of greenway created, but we do benefit from the clean water, healthy population of fish and wildlife, scenic pleasures, and natural setting that their protection provides.
Parks and Open Spaces
Parks are ideal spots for recreation and relaxation. A variety of public and private parks provide opportunities for swimming, boating, fishing, picnicking, golfing, walking, jogging, bicycling, rollerblading, playing ball, or simply sitting and enjoying the outdoors. Other open areas such as farm fields, estate lands, and golf courses are often privately owned and inaccessible to the public. Nonetheless, protection of these lands can play a key role in maintaining scenic views, local character, and the general open feeling of an area. They can also be used to link nearby protected areas, thereby increasing the amount of contiguous open space. This is often critical to the habitat requirements and migration patterns of wildlife. In addition, easements and public rights-of way can sometimes be secured adjacent to or across private open lands, providing access to a relatively small strip of land, but enabling people to experience the entire landscape as they move through it.
Cultural and Historic Resources
Cultural and historic features reflect diversity in history, settlement patterns, and character of the 351 cities and towns in Massachusetts. This group of resources includes any feature in a town or region that has special meaning or plays a role in defining the character or charm of that place. They range from old mills and historic buildings to churches and cemeteries to town commons lined with two-hundred year old sugar maple trees. By recognizing and protecting these resources, we are preserving our heritage and highlighting the features that tell a community's story. Not only does this teach us about our past, but it also ensures that the unique and diverse characteristics of the Commonwealth continue to exist for generations to come.
Corridors
Corridors are stretches of land and water that link the various resources to create greenway networks. They are usually linear in nature and can be natural, man-made, or a combination of both. Some examples include river and stream channels, coastlines, canal towpaths, railroad and utility rights-of-way, paths and trails, scenic roads, and city sidewalks. These linear resources and their inherent potential for linkage characterize the greenway approach and set it apart from other open space protection initiatives. By joining different resources together into an integrated network, each individual resource area becomes a part of a greater whole whose utility, accessibility, and environmental value are far greater than any of these separate pieces.
The four types of resources discussed above may be under public or private ownership and can vary greatly in terms of the level of protection enjoyed and the type and extent of public access permitted or desired. Public and quasi-public conservation land is generally protected to some degree and tends to provide some level of public access and use. Examples of this type of land include public and private parks and conservation lands, nature centers, college campuses, municipal golf courses, certain land trust holdings, and waterways. It is likely, however, that many other resources and parcels of land that would be ideal for inclusion in your greenway network are not protected at all. Typical examples include farm fields, scenic vistas, undesignated historic structures, waterfront and roadside properties, and tracts of undeveloped land. These types of areas often face the greatest degree of threat, but also present the greatest opportunity. By working to protect these resources and to incorporate them into your greenway, you can have a positive impact on the environmental quality, visual beauty, and future character of your town or region.
Types of Greenways
All greenways link together resources, but the specific elements included and the way in which they are connected will vary depending on the goals, objectives, and feasibility of your particular project. For example, if the primary goal is to provide recreational opportunities, the swath of land chosen may be quite different than if the intent is to create a wildlife corridor. Both might include open fields, wooded trails, and land adjacent to rivers. However, the linkage patterns, types of infrastructure needed, acceptable levels of human access, and permitted uses would vary greatly, influencing the location as well as the character of the corridor
While greenways may be as diverse as the resources they protect, most projects fall within four broad categories: river greenways, paths and trails, cultural and historic greenways, and wildlife corridors. A brief description of each is given below. It is important to keep in mind, however, that greenway efforts rarely fit neatly into one category. Most greenways combine elements from one or more categories, ultimately satisfying a variety of goals
River Greenways
Some of the most popular greenways in the country are those following rivers. The natural appeal of water, the abundance of resources and recreational opportunities in and around river corridors, and the linear nature of waterways are among the reasons so many greenway efforts focus on rivers and streams. A river greenway typically includes the actual river or stream channel plus a corridor of protected land on either side of the waterway. The width of the corridor is defined by a number of factors including natural features and environmental constraints, local setback requirements, ownership patterns, and human made barriers such as railroad tracks, canal towpaths, or existing buildings. River greenways also vary greatly in length; some focus on a particular stretch of water, while others attempt to encompass the entire river corridor.
Rivers have played a key role in the economic development and success of many communities across the Commonwealth. At the same time, they are essential to the life cycles of many plants and animals, and play a critical role in maintaining clean water supplies and the delicate balance that exists at the water’s edge. Creating a system of greenways that incorporates these waterways and the resources that surround them can at once protect the natural environment, rehabilitate historic landmarks, provide various outdoor opportunities, promote economic activity, and enable citizens to safely enjoy and experience our natural and cultural heritage.
River greenways are often grouped into two basic types: urban river greenways and natural river greenways. Although both address water quality and pollution control issues, many urban river greenways focus on recreation and are seen as a means to help stimulate economic activity and downtown revitalization. In contrast, the primary goal of most natural river greenways is to maintain the natural state of the river corridor.
Urban River Greenways
Rivers played a central role in the industrial revolution and were critical to transportation, communication, and economic growth. As a result, they became the backbone linking together the many cities and towns that developed along them. But with the advent of trains and automobiles, many urban rivers were abandoned as a means of commerce or transportation and were used primarily as dumping grounds for human and industrial wastes. This gave rise to vacant, unkempt areas bordering many urban rivers, which were often as uninviting as the polluted waters that ran through them. Rather than being the focal point of a community, rivers began to divide cities and their inhabitants.
Over the past twenty years, much has been done to improve water quality of many rivers in Massachusetts. Creating urban river greenways can play a vital role in this trend and help restore rivers to a more positive cultural and economic status. Working to clean up a river and to create a riverfront pathway such as the Housatonic Riverwalk can have significant environmental, economic, and recreational benefits. An urban river greenway can also act as the spine of a larger greenway network; spin-offs connecting the waterfront with neighborhoods, shopping centers, and various historical sites and tourist attractions further increase its utility and economic benefit. In addition, a river greenway that begins in an urban area can provide pedestrian or bicycle access to the natural environment as it travels out into the countryside. When complete, the Blackstone Rive Bikeway will run from downtown Worcester to Providence, Rhode Island, traveling through small towns and suburbs along the way. This major transportation and recreation corridor will be an asset to the region and has stimulated many smaller, local greenway and trail projects which are tied into the larger, long term vision.
Natural River Greenways
Natural or "wild" river greenways provide many of the same benefits as urban river greenways, but usually differ in character from their urban counterparts. Resource protection and low-impact recreation and very often the primary goals of natural river greenways. Protecting natural river corridors helps to maintain water quality, is essential to the continued existence of many plant and animal species, minimizes flood damage and the associated costs, helps to prevent erosion, and provides many recreational opportunities such as nature study, hiking, canoeing, and fishing.
Monitoring adjacent land uses is also an important element in establishing a successful natural river greenway. Extensive agricultural spraying, timber cutting, earth removal, lawn care applications, and/or paving can lead to increased run-off, water pollution, and erosion of the streambanks. In addition, proper management of adjacent land helps protect the scenic beauty of the riverbanks, enhancing the experiences of those hiking, swimming, canoeing, kayaking, or fishing.
Paths and Trails
Like river greenways, trail-based greenways are diverse and can take numerous forms on the ground: walkways, hiking trails, bicycle paths, exercise trails, riverfront esplanades, and bridle paths. These provide for a variety of recreational opportunities including walking, hiking, skiing, nature interpretation, bicycling, roller-blading, and running. Because of the linear nature of trails and their ability to link resource areas, every type of greenway usually includes some type of trail. It is important to remember that the main purpose of the most trail-oriented greenways is to provide people with recreational opportunities and easy access to the outdoors close to where they live. While creating trails and paths clearly has environmental and economic benefits, recreation, access, and mobility are the prominent features of trail-based greenway systems. Paved and hard-surfaced pathways can also provide recreation and transportation opportunities for people in wheelchairs.
Most trail oriented greenways, regardless of their specific character, connect a variety of open spaces, public places, and resource areas. However, some networks feature the trails themselves, such as the Metacomet-Monadnock, Midstate, and Appalachian trails, and bicycle pathways like the Norwottuck Rail Trail and the Minuteman Commuter Bikeway. Many bikeways and pathways are also used as an alternative to the automobile for commuting, shopping, and other local activities. In these cases, a separate bicycle lane is sometimes designated to help prevent conflicts among trail users.
Trail corridors can be assembled and acquired by state and federal agencies, municipalities, land trusts, or other private organizations, and are often established along easements donated or purchased from private land owners. Railroad and utility rights-of-way, although not originally intended for public recreational use, are often put to good use by greenway and trail planners. There are many such rail-trail efforts underway throughout Massachusetts. The Organization for the Assabet River, for example, is working to establish a twelve-mile-long pathway between Marlborough and South Acton using abandoned railroad rights-of-way and stretches of the Assabet River greenway.
Cultural and Historic Greenways
The motivation behind this type of greenway is to rehabilitate and conserve cultural and historic resources, and to make them accessible to the public. Once identified, features such as historic districts or individual structures, urban heritage parks, monuments, sites of cultural interest, and museums can be integrated into a single system. Various combinations of walking routes, scenic roads, trails, and waterways can weave together these often scattered resources into a logical network. The Ten Mile River Watershed Alliance is working with the City of Attleboro to establish a Heritage Trail network throughout the Ten Mile River watershed. The first phase of this project is to create three miles of walking trails within Attleboro which highlight and interpret historical and natural resources along the route.
Creating cultural/historic greenways often involves the rehabilitation of abandoned structures and the restoration of entire areas, both of which help to enhance the quality and character of place. These types of improvements can also increase the property value of parcels within and adjacent to the greenway. In addition, cultural/historic greenways usually entail some interpretation of the featured resources, serving to educate both residents and tourists alike.
The features included in the cultural/historic greenways document our past, enrich our present, and highlight the unique character of cities and towns across the Commonwealth. Protecting these resources helps us to appreciate our heritage and enables us to share it with future citizens. Not only are these greenways attractive and educational, but they can also help to stimulate the economy, making Massachusetts a more appealing place to live, work, and visit.
Wildlife Corridors
A wildlife corridor is a swath of protected land and/or water where animals can live and travel undisturbed by development and other human activity. Urbanization and unplanned growth have resulted in a fragmented development pattern. While the landscape may appear too developed to support many wildlife species, there is often more open space within developed areas than might be expected. The problem is that most of these parks and patches of green space are isolated and do not meet the habitat requirements of wildlife that require large protected territories, or the ability to move between two different habitats for breeding purposes. However, when these scattered areas become part of a connected network of protected natural areas, their utility and ability to support larger and more sensitive wildlife species often increases. Protected corridors can also link together existing wildlife preserves, greatly enhancing the contiguous acreage of safe habitat on which many animals depend. Linking habitat areas to create safe migration routes is a key concept behind wildlife corridors.
Unlike most other greenways, wildlife corridors are rather specific and must be carefully tailored to the habitat and migration needs of a particular species. The size of the swath, its location, and the permitted level of human access are determined by the requirements of the primary animal(s) targeted for protection. For example, river otter habitat requirements were selected as a criterion for determining the feasibility of a wildlife corridor between Quabbin Reservoir and Mount Wachusett in Worcester County. River otter require a corridor with a 300-foot buffer area, and a range of approximately fifteen to thirty linear miles.2 It was found that a corridor this size could be assembled and designated within the suburban/rural environment under consideration, especially since river otter can tolerate a certain amount of human activity. The Florida panther, on the other hand, requires acres and acres of contiguous, undisturbed wilderness in order to survive.3 Creating a corridor to accommodate these needs would likely require designating large areas as wildlife preserves and connecting critical habitat areas to prevent further fragmentation by new roads and development of their already endangered habitat.
It is clear that we cannot stop development nor can we afford to purchase and set aside the large amount of land some species require. However, establishing wildlife-oriented greenways is a feasible alternative for protecting and expanding threatened habitat areas and for maintaining biological diversity in our ever-changing landscape.
Greenways have become extremely popular in the past two decades, but they are by no means a new idea. A number of planners, landscape designers, projects, and books, in both the United States and Europe have been influenced open space initiatives and contributed to the modern greenway concept. In the late 1800s. well-known landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted designed a number of urban park systems based on the premise that open space and recreation were essential components of urban life.4 He believed that in order for citizens to genuinely experience the outdoors, they needed to be able to move through it from one park or open space to another. It was this notion that gave rise to Olmsted's "parkways," which were scenic paths connecting urban parks. Unlike modern parkways built to accommodate fast-moving automobiles, Olmsted's parkways were designed to enable people, either on foot, or in carriages, to experience the beauty of their surroundings as they traveled.5 These linear connectors were the forerunners of the linkage principle, one of the major components of the modern greenway concept.
One of Olmsted's most famous park and parkway systems was Boston's Emerald Necklace. Proposed in 1887, this four-and-one-half-mile-long arc of open space created a green strip connecting Boston Common with Franklin Park and including many accessible open areas along the way.6 The Emerald Necklace was the inspiration for the present day Massachusetts Bay Circuit which, when complete, will form a diverse network of open spaces encircling the entire Boston Metropolitan area.
While Olmsted was creating and promoting the parkway concept in the United States, greenbelts were also gaining prominence in Britain. In the U.S. the term "greenbelt" is often used interchangeably with greenway to refer to any relatively wide swath of protected open space. In Britain, however, the term greenbelt usually describes the specific technique of encircling a growing urban area with a band of open space to contain metropolitan expansion, to prevent cities and towns from merging together, and to maintain large areas of open countryside amidst a developing landscape. Most contemporary greenways in the U.S. do not specifically focus on containment, although they do use open space to shape growth while providing access to the countryside. This characteristic of our modern greenways is based in part on the British greenbelt system.
In 1982, Benton Mckaye, a forester by training, spoke of the need to create "circuits of open ways" to guide metropolitan development and to provide people with access to the natural environment.7 Known as the origination of the Appalachian Trail, MacKaye promoted creating large environmentally-based networks of open space. His ideas on regionalism and resource-based planning and design added significantly to the evolving greenway concept, and made him an important figure in the regional planning movement of the 1920s.
In his 1968 book on metropolitan open space, The Last Landscape, William Whyte speaks of the utility of linking open space networks.8 A well known landscape architect and urban planner, Whyte also played a large role in popularizing the term "greenway," although clearly he was neither the first nor the last to promote the idea.
In 1987, The President's Commission on Americans Outdoors brought national recognition to greenways and greenway planning by making it the centerpiece of their final report. It is not surprising that as metropolitan growth has continued to increase, so has the need for and thus the interest in greenways. Im the Commission's summary report they recommended that "communities establish of private and public recreation lands and waters, to provide people with access to open spaces close to where they live, and to link together the rural and urban spaces in the American landscape."9 This national support and publicity of the greenway vision validated the greenway movement and further increased its momentum.
The modern greenway concept has grown out of the challenges and successes experienced by some of the most creative and visionary planners of this century as they attempted to protect the aspects of the countryside they valued most. Today's greenway movement is the result of hundreds of committed individuals who have updated these visions, and transformed them from ideas of the past to present-day realities. While discussions and articles about the greenway concept have been ongoing for more than a century, the popularity and success of greenway planning projects over the past two decades has been dramatic. Today, hundreds of greenway initiatives are underway throughout the United States, including a number of innovative efforts in Massachusetts. It is hoped that with the help of this guidebook, more individuals and communities will, in the words of the President's Commission, join in the "prairie fire of local action" and work to create a ever-expanding network of greenways.
Creating greenways can benefit you and your community in numerous ways, both now and in the future. Although quite diverse, these benefits may be grouped into three broad categories: environmental, social and cultural, and economic. While each greenway has specific impacts, this chapter provides you with an idea of some of the multiple benefits that commonly result from greenway efforts. Feel free to borrow from these ideas as you publicize the greenway concept in your community. Although no greenways can be expected to yield all the values listed below, remember that as the range of potential uses and users of a greenway increases so too will the constituency that supports it.
Environmental Benefits
By their very nature, greenways benefit the the environment by preserving the integrity of natural systems. They help conserve and enhance our resource base, and protect the plant, wildlife, and human populations which depend on the health and well-being of our natural environment. In particular, greenways can:
Social and Cultural Benefits
Greenways benefit society on a fundamental level by reconnecting people with the land and with one another. Through education, recreation, and preserving local character, greenways can help to restore or enhance our interactions with the outdoors and with the landscapes that define our cultural heritage.
From a social and cultural perspective, greenways can:
Close and easy access to recreational opportunities encourages participation in outdoor activities, be it for exercise, relaxation, or nature study. This has an appeal that transcends generational or economic lines and enables people living in urban, suburban, or rural areas to experience the outdoors in their own neighborhoods. This sort of opportunity will enable people to develop a better appreciation for the natural environment and will hopefully foster a sense of stewardship and responsibility among all members of society. Building a diverse group of outdoor advocates throughout Massachusetts will help ensure that our natural and cultural resources flourish for generations to come.
In addition to the direct social benefits listed above, greenways can play an important role in land-use planning and growth management. The key here is to focus on the positive aspects of creating greenways and on their compatibility with development. In this context, greenways can:
In terms of economic benefits, greenways can:
Greenways provide a logical means of managing a variety of resource areas which are often dispersed throughout the landscape. They emphasize existing landscape features and use them as the framework for planning. Because these natural areas rarely coincide with municipal boundaries, greenway planning often leads to a more environmentally-based, regional view of land and resource management. Greenways also offer an opportunity to take a holistic approach to resource protection by explicitly planning for the joint use and protection of natural, cultural, and recreational resources.
Greenways are sensitive to current recreational needs and demands. In 1987 the President's Commission on Americans Outdoors found that not only are the recreational demands of the American people growing, they are also changing. Based on their research, the Commission found that people want convenient and continuous access to recreational opportunities close to their homes. Greenways are structured to meet these demands.
Connecting existing resources, patches of open space, and linear strips of land and water creates meaningful open space networks. While some of the resources included in greenway systems are valuable in and of themselves, individual fragments may not be appealing or inviting to potential users, may not be adequate to support wildlife, or may not effectively protect the environment.
Weaving them together, however, greatly increase their ability to meet both environmental and recreational demands, and the whole greenway becomes a great deal more than the sum of its parts.
Because greenway corridors are linear in nature, they are ideal for providing multiple access points. This encourages use by a broader range of people, whether they are out for an afternoon stroll or bike ride, a long-distance hike, or a day-long canoe trip.
Greenway Planning is Flexible and AdaptableEvery greenway is unique and reflects particular interactions between people and the land. Greenways can be established in urban, suburban, and rural areas, and they can address a variety of goals and objectives. In addition, the goals and priorities of greenway efforts often change over the length of the corridor and can be implemented accordingly across a region. This enables a community to achieve specific local goals while complementing and becoming part of a regional system.
Greenway Planning Addresses the Needs of Several GroupsGreenways are appealing to many different types of individuals and organizations. By involving citizens and public officials who may not normally work together, greenway planning efforts are able to build extremely diverse constituencies. These interactions and a broad base of support can help counter, or even eliminate, opposing points of view. In addition, cooperating on a project often fosters a sense of trust and develops a basis for future planning efforts.
Greenway Planning is a Citizen Based EffortMost greenways are born out of the hard work, enthusiasm, and perseverance of ordinary citizens as they strive to transform their ideas into realities. Playing an active role in establishing a greenway is empowering. It enables us to create something positive and tangible for ourselves and for our communities. Involvement in greenway planning fosters civic and personal pride, and helps to create or restore a feeling of community which is fast becoming a rarity. Back to Table of Contents
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